Lindsey Fillingham – Literature Review Draft
Improvisation in its broadest sense
Improvisation – creating and performing spontaneously or without preparation (English Oxford Dictionary) – occurs in everyday speech, thought and action, and more formally in art, including music, drama and dance. The term is probably derived from the Latin improvisus, meaning ‘unforeseen’ (EOD, Campbell, 2009:122). The synonym extemporisation provides a different shade of meaning: ‘outside of time’.
Challenges in definition
Within music, scholars have noted the difficulty in defining improvisation. It is “is always changing and adjusting, never fixed, too elusive for analysis and precise description; essentially non-academic.” (Bailey, 1992:ix). Its temporal nature makes it a difficult subject for historical research (Nettl, in Grove Online). Furthermore, the connotations of lack of preparation, and even laziness or thoughtlessness (Nettl (2009:is) make it a poor word to describe a demanding skill. Importantly, improvisation “is an ephemeral, temporally irreversible, and unrepeatable event.” (Bertinetto, 2013:87). The emphasis on music conceived and generated in ‘real time’ is what sets improvisation apart from performance of notated or memorised material.
Whatever the shortcomings of the term, improvisation has been and continues to be a significant influence on the development of multiple musics. It could be described as the original source and driving force behind almost every genre (E.T. Ferand in Bailey, 1992:ix), although, as will be explored further, it has become a rarity in classical music.
Performance and composition
Both creative and performative (Bertinetto 2013:87), improvisation encompasses composition and performance. In fact, performing and composition could both be seen as 'essentially improvisatory' in nature (Bennett, 2003:2). In classical music terms, a master performer taps into an 'improvisatory state of mind' (Dolan, 2005) on stage, constantly refreshing their interpretation and delivery of written music in the music. Classical composers are not only known to use improvisation as part of their creative process, but contemporary composers occasionally require performers to improvise within their works (for example, Mark-Anthony Turnage's Blood on the Floor).
Improvisation in different cultures and musical genres
The concept and value of musical improvisation differs enormously between cultures and genres, and this will be explored further. However, a universal principle in musical improvisation is that multiple decisions regarding some (not always all) of the universal of elements of sound – pitch, intensity, organisation of time and timbre – are made and executed by performer/s in ‘real time’ (Pressing, 1988; Dolan, 2005). Thus, indeed, referring back to the original definition, some elements of improvisation are ‘unforeseen’. Whether all decisions made in improvisation are always unforeseen to the performer, their co-performer(s) or listeners is a question to explore. Duke Ellington (Derek Jewell, 1977 cited in Nettl, 2009: ix) said, “Anyone who plays anything worth hearing knows what he’s going to play, no matter whether he prepares a day ahead or a beat ahead.” According to the genre or culture in which it occurs, there are different relationships between and proportions of the ‘fixed’ and ‘free’ elements of improvisation. [Find examples from other world musics]. Often there is a spectrum, from highly structured and restricted to unstructured and less restricted Campbell (2009:124).
Idiomatic vs non-idiomatic improvisation
Bailey (1992:xi) distinguishes between ‘idiomatic’ and ‘non-idiomatic’ improvisation. The former is deeply rooted in its applicable genre (Kratus, 1996, Miller, 2015), and therefore will contain certain predictable patterns or gestures, recognisable to performers and listeners; the latter is commonly known as ‘free improvisation,’ and claims to transcend the limitations of genres (MacDonald, Wilson & Miell, 2012). This is a contentious point - one could argue that even free improvisation is impacted by all previous musical experience [read Parker, 1992, 2007], and that avoidance of recognisable tropes and patterns in itself restricts freedom.
Improvisation in classical music
Today, although improvisation is practiced in jazz, world and folk music, in classical music it is regarded a rare rather than a core skill (Kratus, 1996; Creech et. al., 2008 ). Despite contemporary composers increasingly incorporating improvisational elements in their works, improvisation is relatively seldom heard in concert halls – even in concerti cadenzas – apart from some exceptions (Levin, Montero, Dolan).
This has not always been the case. Until the mid-1800s, improvisation was an integral part of classical music (Moore, 1992). CPE Bach (1949/1753) and Czerny (1983/1836) wrote treatises on the subject. Well-known improvisers include J.S. Bach, Mozart, Chopin (Levin, 2003) Brahms, Paganini, Mendelssohn and Schubert (Moore, 1992). A number of factors, including social change, the rise of printed music, the sound recording and an almost exclusive emphasis on ‘correct’ interpretation of 17th, 18th and 19th century urtext led to the decline of improvisation in classical music (Moore, 1992).
Definition for my research
For the purposes of this dissertation, I define improvisation as the spontaneous and simultaneous creation and performance of music. I hesitate to use the term 'classical improvisation', as this could limit the definition to improvisation within notated canon, as practiced historically in the Baroque, Classical and Romantic periods, where, for example, there are opportunities for improvised cadenzas or embellished repeats. However, as taught by Prof. Dolan (2005), the practice of classical improvisation is broad and can be inspired by a wide range of stimuli. It includes completely new improvisations, perhaps in the style of a classical form such as a minuet or sonata., but it can take on a more contemporary classical style: the inclusion of extended techniques or different timbral effects, venturing into free tonality, and encompassing a spectrum from very structured to structurally free improvisations. Improvised collaborations can also take place with other art forms, including drama and movement. Whilst conceived of, taught and practiced as essentially a collaborative art, Prof. Dolan’s method does include the possibility for solo improvisation, particularly in the form of preludes or fantasias. It also includes transformation of canonical works; for example, improvising a new melodic line to the notated bass of a Mozart quartet, or reducing a Bach prelude to a series of musical gestures and improvising on that memorised framework. Having been trained my Prof. Dolan, his methods are my point of departure for performance and research.
Group improvisation
A key work on classical improvisation is Berkowitz’ The Improvising Mind (2010). This monograph examines cognition in improvisation pedagogy (including a thorough review of historic treatises on the subject) and in two performers’ accounts of their improvisation. Berkowitz goes on to compare language and musical improvisational skill acquisition, and review what is known about the neuroscience of improvisation. As Spring (2013) points out, however, Berkowitz’ work focuses only on individual improvisation, citing interviews with pianists Robert Levin and Malcolm Bilson. Similarly, none of the historic treatises (Corri, C.PE. Bach, Czerny, Kollmann, Kalkbrenner, Hottettere, Ortez) mention group improvisation (check). To say that contemporary classical improvisation in groups is derived from a historic precedent is misleading; however, historic practice and accounts do lend valuable insight into the skill acquisition process, and inspirational possibilities for improvising groups of classical musicians today.
In addition to Levin and Bilson, there are other performing improvisers on the classical music circuit – Gabriela Montero frequently dedicates the second half of her concert programmes to improvisations on themes given by the audience. Pianists David Dolan (Guildhall School) and Douglas Finch (Trinity Laban) are improvisers, and Dolan in particular collaborates with multiple instrumentalists. Graduate groups from the Guildhall include Prima Volta, The Duruflé Trio and Ensemble Nova Luce. ‘Epiphany’ based in the North-West, is made up of professional classical musicians who improvise ‘Sound Portraits’. These are small beginnings however; group improvisation is still ‘under the radar’.
Next key readings:
Berkowitz. 2010 The Improvising Mind
Berliner. 2002. Thinking in jazz: the infinite art of improvisation
Ferand 1938(?) Improvisation in Nine Centuries
Fordham, 2013. Butch Morris Obituary. https://www.theguardian.com/music/2013/feb/04/butch-morris [Accessed 2018, 17 January]
Levin. Improvising Mozart (in Nettl & Solis)
Kenny & Birchell 2002 Improvisation in ‘The Science and Psychology of Music Performance: Creative Strategies for Teaching and Learning’
Nettl & Russell. In the Course of Performance: Studies in the World of Improvisation
Pressing. The History of Classical Improvisation
Sawyer, R.K. 2006. Group Creativity: Musical Performance and Collaboration. In ‘Psychology of Music’
Spring, H. 2013. http://www.criticalimprov.com/article/view/2802/3224 Book Review. Critical Studies in Improvisation Vol 9 No 1 [Accessed 2018, January 17]
Ratliff, B. 2013 (Jan 29). Butch Morris Dies at 65; Creator of ‘Conduction’. http://www.nytimes.com/2013/01/30/arts/music/butch-morris-dies-at-65-creator-of-conduction.html [Accessed 2018, January 17]